Key Historical Figures of World War I (2023)

Prime Minister Herbert Asquith

Prime Minister of Britain since 1908, he oversaw Britain’s entry into World War One when he underestimated the scale of the July crisis and relied on the judgment of colleagues who had supported theFarmer war. He struggled to unite his government, and after the disasters of the Somme and a rising in Ireland was forced out by a mixture of press and political pressure.

Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg

As Chancellor of Imperial Germany from 1909 until the start of the war, it was Hollweg’s job to try and prise apart the triple alliance of Britain, France, and Russia; he was unsuccessful, thanks partly to the actions of other Germans. He managed to calm international events in the years before the warbut seems to have developed a fatalism by 1914, and he gave Austria-Hungary backing. He appears to have tried to direct the army east, to meet Russia and avoid antagonizing Francebut lacked the power. He was in charge of the September Programme, which spelt out enormous war aims, and spent the next three years trying to balance the divisions in Germany and maintain some diplomatic weight despite the actions of the military, but was worn down into accepting Unrestricted Submarine Warfare and ousted by the military and the rising Reichstag parliament.

General Aleksey Brusilov

The most talented and successful Russian commander of the First World War, Brusilov started the conflict in charge of the Russian Eighth Army, where he contributed significantly to success in Galicia in 1914. By 1916 he had stood out enough to be put in charge of the southwest Eastern Front, and the Brusilov offensive of 1916 was hugely successful by the standards of the conflict, capturing hundreds of thousands of prisoners, taking territory, and distracting the Germans from Verdun at a key moment. However, the victory was not decisive, and the army began to lose further morale. Russia soon fell to revolution, and Brusilov found himself with no army to command. After a period of difficulty, he later commanded Red forces in theRussian Civil War.

Winston Churchill

As First Lord of the Admiralty when war broke out, Churchill was instrumental in keeping the fleet safe and ready to act as events unfolded. He oversaw the movement of the BEF perfectly, but his interventions, appointments, and actions made him enemies and undermined his previous reputation for successful dynamism. Associated heavily with the Gallipoli expedition, in which he made critical mistakes, he lost the job in 1915but decided to command a unit on the Western Front, doing so in 1915-16. In 1917, Lloyd George brought him back to government as Minister of Munitions, where he made a significant contribution to supplying the army, and again promoted tanks.

Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau

Clemenceau had established a formidable reputation before the First World War, thanks to his radicalism, his politics, and his journalism. When war broke out, he resisted offers to join the government and used his position to attack any faults he saw in the army, and he saw many. By 1917, with the French war effort failing, the country turned to Clemenceau to halt the slide. With boundless energy, iron will and fierce belief, Clemenceau drove France through total war and the successful conclusion of the conflict. He wished to inflict a brutally harsh peace on Germanyand has been accused of losing the peace.

General Eric von Falkenhayn

Although Moltke tried to use him as a scapegoat in 1914, Falkenhayn was chosen to replace Moltke late in 1914. He believed victory would be won in the west and only sent troops east with reservation, earning him the enmity of Hindenburg and Ludendorff, but did enough to ensure the conquest of Serbia. In 1916 he unveiled his coldly pragmatic plan for the west, the ​war of attrition atVerdun, but lost sight of his objectives and saw the Germans suffer equal casualties. When an under-supported east suffered setbacks, he was further weakened and replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff. He then took command of an army and defeated Romania, but failed to repeat the success in Palestine and Lithuania.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

It was theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Habsburg throne, which sparked off the First World War. Ferdinand wasn’t well liked in Austria-Hungary, partly because he was a difficult man to deal with, and partly because he wished to reform Hungary to give the Slavs more say, but he acted as a check on Austrian actions immediately before the war, moderating response and helping to avoid conflict.

Field Marshal Sir John French

A cavalry commander who made his name in Britain’s colonial wars, French was the first commander of the British Expeditionary Force during the war. His early experiences of modern warfare at Mons gave him the belief that the BEF was at risk of being wiped out, and he may have grown clinically depressed as the war continued in 1914, missing chances to act. He was also suspicious of the Frenchand had to be persuaded by a personal visit from Kitchener to keep the BEF fighting. As those above and below him grew frustrated, French was seen to fail significantly in the battles of 1915 and replaced by Haig at the end of the year.

Marshal Ferdinand Foch

Before the war broke out, Foch’s military theories — which argued the French soldier was disposed to attacking — profoundly influenced the development of the French army. At the start of the war, he was given troops to commandbut made his name in collaborating and ​coordinating with other allied commanders. When Joffre fell, he was sidelined, but made a similar impression working in Italy, and won over allied leaders enough to become the Allied Supreme Commander on the Western Front, where his sheer personality and guile helped him maintain success for just about long enough.

Emperor Franz Josef Habsburg I

Habsburg Emperor Franz Josef I spent much of his sixty-eight-year reign keeping an increasingly fractious empire together. He was largely against war, which he felt would destabilize the nation, and the capture of Bosnia in 1908 was an aberration. However, in 1914 he appears to have changed his mind after the assassination of his heir Franz Ferdinand, and it’s possible the weight of family tragedies, as well as the pressures of holding the empire intact, made him allow a war to punish Serbia. He died in 1916, and with him went a great deal of the personal support that had held the empire together.

Sir Douglas Haig

A former cavalry commander, Haig worked as Commander of the British 1^stArmy in 1915, and used his political connections to criticize the BEF’s commander, French, and have himself named a replacement at the end of the year. For the remainder of the war, Haig led the British army, mixing faith that a breakthrough could be achieved on the Western Front with a total imperturbability at the human cost, which he believed was inevitable in modern war. He was certain victory should be actively pursued, or else the war would last decades, and in 1918 his policy of wearing the Germans down and developments in supply and tactics meant he oversaw victories. Despite a recent turn to his defense, he remains the most controversial figure in the English historiography, for some a bungler who wasted millions of lives, for others a determined winner.

Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg

Hindenburg was called out of retirement in 1914 to command the Eastern Front in tandem with the formidable talents of Ludendorff. He was soon just the gloss on Ludendorff’s decisions, but was still officially in charge and given total command of the war with Ludendorff. Despite the failure of Germany in the war, he remained hugely popularand would go on to become the President of Germany who appointed Hitler.

Conrad von Hotzendorf

The head of the Austro-Hungarian army, Conrad is perhaps the individual most responsible for the outbreak of World War One. Before 1914 he had called for war perhaps over fifty times, and he believed strong action against rival powers was needed to maintain the empire’s integrity. He wildly overestimated what the Austrian army could achieve, and put in place imaginative plans with little regard to reality. He started the war by having to divide his forces, thus making little impact on either zone and continued to fail. He was replaced in February 1917.

Marshal Joseph Joffre

As Chief of the French General Staff from 1911, Joffre did much to shape the way France would respond to war, and as Joffre believed in a strong offense, this involved promoting aggressive officers and pursuing Plan XVIII: an invasion of Alsace-Lorraine. He advocated full and fast mobilization during the July Crisis of 1914but found his preconceptions shattered by the reality of war. Almost at the last minute, he changed plans to stop Germany just short of Paris, and his calmness and unflustered nature contributed to this victory. However, over the next year, a succession of critics eroded his reputation, and he fell open to massive attack when his plans for Verdun were seen to have created that crisis. In December 1916 he was removed from command, made a Marshal, and reduced to performing ceremonies.

Mustafa Kemal

A professional Turkish soldier who predicted that Germany would lose a major conflict, Kemal was nonetheless given a command when the Ottoman Empire joined Germany in the war, albeit after a period of waiting. Kemal was sent to the Gallipoli Peninsula, where he played a crucial role in defeating the Entente invasion, propelling him to the international stage. He was then sent to fight Russia, winning victories, and to Syria and Iraq. Resigning in disgust at the state of the army, he suffered from health problems before recovering and being sent to Syria again. As Ataturk, he would later lead a rebellion and found the modern state of Turkey.

Field Marshal Horatio Kitchener

A famed imperial commander, Kitchener was appointed British War Minister in 1914 more for his reputation than his ability to organize. He almost immediately brought a realism to the cabinet, claiming the war would last years and require as large an army Britain could manage. He used his fame to recruit two millionvolunteers through a campaign which featured his face, and kept French and the BEF in the war. However, he was a failure in other aspects, such as securing Britain’s turn to total waror providing a coherent organizational structure. Slowly sidelined during 1915, Kitchener’s public reputation was so great he couldn’t be fired, but he drowned in 1916 when his ship, traveling to Russia, was sunk.

Lenin

Although by 1915 his opposition to the war meant that he was only the leader of a small socialist faction, by the end of 1917 his continued call for peace, bread and land had helped him take charge of a coup d’etat to lead Russia. He overruled fellow Bolsheviks who wanted to continue the ​war and entered into talks with Germany which turned into the Brest-Litovsk treaty.

British Prime Minister Lloyd-George

Lloyd-George’s political reputation in the years before the First World War was one of a vocal anti-war liberal reformer. Once conflict broke out in 1914, he read the public mood and was instrumental in getting the Liberals to support intervention. He was an early ‘Easterner’ — wanting to attack the Central Powers away from the Western Front — and as Minister for Munitions in 1915 intervened to improve production, throwing open the industrial workplace to women and competition. After politicking in 1916, he became Prime Minister, determined to win the war but save British lives from his commanders, of whom he was deeply suspicious and with whom he warred.After World War 1, he wanted a careful peace settlementbut was pushed into a harsher treatment of Germany by his allies.

General Erich Ludendorff

A professional soldier who had gained a political reputation, Ludendorff rose in esteem in seizing Liege in 1914and was appointed Hindenburg’s Chief of Staff in the east in 1914, so he could make an impact. The pair — but chiefly Ludendorff with his considerable talents — soon inflicted defeats on Russia and pushed them right back. Ludendorff’s reputation and politicking saw he and Hindenburg appointed in charge of the entire war, and it was Ludendorff who drew up the Hindenburg Programme to allow Total War. Ludendorff’s power grew, and he both authorized Unrestricted Submarine Warfare and tried to win a decisive victory in the west in 1918. The failure of both — he innovated tactically, but drew the wrong strategic conclusions — caused him a mental collapse. He recovered to call for an armistice and to create a German scapegoatand effectively started the ‘Stabbed in the Back’ Myth.

Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke

Moltke was the nephew of his great namesake but suffered an inferiority complex to him. As Chief of Staff in 1914, Moltke thought war with Russia was inevitable, and it was he who had the responsibility of implementing the Schlieffen Plan, which he modified but failed to plan through properly pre-war. His changes to the plan and the failure of the German offensive on the Western Front, which owed a deal to his inability to cope with events as they developed, opened him up to criticism and he was replaced as Commander in Chief in September 1914 by Falkenhayn.

Robert-Georges Nivelle

A brigade commander in the early part of the war, Nivelle rose to command first a French division and then 3^rdCorps at Verdun. As Joffre grew wary of Petain’s success, Nivelle was promoted to command the 2^ndArmy at Verdun and had great success in using creeping barrages and infantry attacks to retake the land.

In December 1916 he was chosen to succeed Joffre as head of the French forces, and his belief in artillery supported frontal assaults was so persuasive the British put their troops under him. However, his grand attack in 1917 failed to match his rhetoric, and the French army mutinied as a result. He was replaced after just five months and sent to Africa.

General John Pershing

Pershing was selected by US President Wilson to command the American Expeditionary Force in 1917. Pershing immediately confounded his colleagues by calling for a million-strong army by 1918, and three million by 1919; his recommendations were accepted.

He kept the AEF together as an independent force, only putting US troops under allied command during the crisis of early 1918. He led the AEF through successful operations in the later part of 1918and survived the war reputation mostly intact.

Marshal Philippe Petain

A professional soldier, Pétain moved slowly up the military hierarchy because he favored a more offensive and integrated approach than the all-out attack popular at the time. He was promoted during the warbut came to national prominence when he was chosen to defend Verdun once the fortress complex seemed in danger of failing.

His skill and organization allowed him to do so successfully until a jealous Joffre promoted him away. When the Nivelle offensive in 1917 led to mutiny, Pétain took over and calmed the soldiers into remaining a working army — often through personal intervention — and commanded successful attacks in 1918, although he showed signs of a worrying fatalism that saw Foch promoted above him to keep a grip. Sadly, a later war would ruin all he achieved in this one.

Raymond Poincaré

As President of France from 1913, he believed war with Germany was inevitableand prepared France appropriately: improve the alliance with Russia and Britain, and expand conscription to create an army equal to Germany. He was in Russia during much of the July crisisand was criticized for not doing enough to stop the war. During the conflict, he tried to keep the union of government factions togetherbut lost power to the military, and after the chaos of 1917 was forced to invite an old rival, Clemenceau, into power as Prime Minister; Clemenceau then took the lead over Poincaré.

Gavrilo Princip

A young and naïve Bosnian Serb from a peasant family, Princip was the man who succeeded — at the second attempt — to kill Franz Ferdinand, the trigger event for World War One. The extent of the support he received from Serbia is debated, but it’s likely he was heavily supported by them, and a change of mind higher up came too late to stop him. Princip doesn’t appear to have held much of an opinion about the consequences of his actions and died in 1918 during a twenty-year prison sentence.

Tsar Nicholas Romanov II

A man who wished for Russia to gain territory in the Balkans and Asia, Nicholas II also disliked war and tried to avoid conflict during the July crisis. Once the war began, the autocratic Tsar refused to allow the liberals or elected Duma officials a say in the running, alienating them; he was also paranoid of any criticism. As Russia faced multiple military defeats, Nicolas took personal command in September 1915; consequently, the failures of a Russia unprepared for modern war were associated firmly with him. These failures and his attempt to crush dissent by force led to a revolution and his abdication. Bolsheviks killed him in 1918.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

The Kaiser was the official head (Emperor) of Germany during World War 1but lost much practical power to military experts early on, and almost all to Hindenburg and Ludendorff in the final years. He was forced to abdicate as Germany rebelled late in 1918, and he didn’t know the announcement was being made for him. The Kaiser was a leading verbal saber rattler before the war — his personal touch caused some crises, and he was passionate about gaining colonies - but calmed down notably as the war progressed and he was sidelined. Despite some Allied demands for a trial, he lived in peace in the Netherlands until his death in 1940.

US President Woodrow Wilson

US President from 1912, Wilson’s experiences of the US Civil War gave him a lifetime enmity towards war, and when World War One started, he was determined to keep the US neutral. However, as the Entente powers grew in debt to the US, the messianic Wilson became convinced he could offer mediation and establish a new international order. He was re-elected on the promise of keeping the US neutral, but when the Germans started Unrestricted Submarine Warfare, he entered the war determined to impose his vision of peace on all the belligerents, as governed by his Fourteen Points plan. He had some effect at Versailles, but couldn’t negate the French, and the US refused to support the League of Nations, ruining his planned new world.